VEGETABLES

VEGETABLES

                   Vegetables have long been abused and neglected, playing minor roles of unimportant side dishes, to be taken or left, or not even noticed on the table. Today however the lowly vegetables are beginning to be appreciated, not only for their nutritional importance but also for the variety, flavor and eye appeal and even elegance and sophistication that they bring to the menu.

Classification:

1.  BY edible portion:

Roots                              Carrots, beetroot, radish...Etc

Tubers                            Potatoes, tapioca,

Bulbs                              onions, garlic, leeks         

Stems                                      celery, asparagus

Leaves                            spinach, cabbage   

Flower                            cauliflower, broccoli        

Seeds (in pods)               Garden peas, beans

Fruits                                       tomato papaya, pumpkin

Fungi                              mushroom, truffles.        

2.  AS PER THE GROUND

On the ground: onion, garlic, leeks

Below the ground: roots and tubers

Above the ground: leaves, fruits, stems, flowers.       

3.    Roots and tubers       

Leafy vegetables

Other vegetables

As a chef you will have the choice of a multitude of vegetables and methods of cooking them. Cooking affects vegetables in four ways:

1.  Texture

2.  Flavor

3.  Color

4.  Nutrients

How much these four characteristics change determines if your final product is attractive and delicious to the customer or if it will end up in the garbage bin? You can control these changes if you know what causes them, and how they happen.

CONTROLLING TEXTURE CHANGE

Changing the texture is one of the main purposes of cooking vegetables.

FIBER:

The fiber structure of vegetables (including cellulose and pectin) gives them shape and firmness. Cooking softens some of these components. The amount of fiber varies

-          In different vegetables. Spinach (palak) and tomatoes have less fiber than French beans and drumsticks.

-          In different examples of the same vegetables. Older carrots have more fibers than the younger ones.

-          In the same vegetable. The florets of cauliflower have fewer fibers than the tough stalk.

Fiber is made firmer by:

1.    Acids. Lemon juice, vinegar and tomato, when added to vegetables during cooking extend the cooking time.

2.    Sugars. Sugar strengthens the cell structure. You will understand this principle better in Fruit cookery.

Fiber is softened by:

1.    Heat.  In general, longer cooking means softer vegetables.

2.    Alkalis. Do not add alkalis such as baking soda while cooking vegetables (especially the green ones, to retain their color). Not only does it destroy vitamins, but also it makes the vegetables unpleasantly mushy.

STARCH:

Starch is another vegetable component that affects texture.

1.    Dry starchy food like dried beans, rice and macaroni must be cooked in sufficient water so that the starch granules can absorb moisture and soften. Dried beans are usually soaked in water before cooking to replace lost moisture.

2.    Moist starchy vegetables like potatoes and sweet potatoes have enough moisture of their own, but they still must be cooked until the starch granules soften.

DONENESS:

A vegetable is said to be done when it has reached the desired degree of tenderness. This stage varies from vegetable to vegetable. Some such as eggplant (brinjal/aubergine) and pumpkin are considered properly cooked when they are quite soft. Most vegetables, however, are best cooked very briefly, until they are al dente (firm to the bite). At this stage of tenderness, they not only have the most pleasing texture, but they retain the maximum taste, color flavor and nutrients.

GUIDELINES FOR ACHIEVING PROPER DONENESS IN VEGETABLES

1.    Do not overcook.

2.    Cook as close to the service time as possible. Keeping them in a hot counter or bain-marie continues to cook them.

3.    If vegetables must be cooked in advance, slightly under-cook them, cool rapidly in cold water, drain, and refrigerate, then reheat at the service time.

4.    For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.

5.    Don’t mix batches of cooked vegetables. They are likely to be cooked to slightly different doneness.

6.    Vegetables with both tough and tender parts need special treatment.

CONTROLLING FLAVOR CHANGES

Cooking produces flavor loss:

Many flavors are lost during cooking, by dissolving in the cooking liquid and by evaporation. The longer a vegetable is cooked the more flavors it loses.

Flavor loss can be controlled in FOUR ways:

a.    Cook for as short a time as possible.

b.    Use boiling salted water. Starting vegetables in boiling water shortens the cooking time. The addition of salt helps reduce flavor loss. The exception here are the starchy vegetables and root vegetables which need to be started in cold water so that the starch granules have time to soften.

c.    Use only enough water to cover the vegetables to minimize leaching.

d.    Steam vegetables when appropriate.

Cooking produces flavor change:

Cooked vegetables do not taste the same as raw vegetables, because cooking produces certain chemical changes. As long as the vegetable is not overcooked, these changes are desirable. It produces the flavors one looks for in cooked vegetables.

With certain strong flavored vegetables, it is desirable to lose some of their flavors to make them more appealing in taste. These include onion, garlic, cabbage and turnips.

Cooking and sweetness:

Young vegetables have high sugar content. Green peas and corn for example. As they mature or sit in storage, the sugar gradually turns into starch.

1.    Try to serve young fresh vegetables that have been stored for as short a time a possible.

2.    For older vegetables, add a small amount of sugar to replace lost sweetness.

CONTROLLING COLOR CHANGES

It is important to preserve as much of natural color as possible, when cooking vegetables. Customers may accept or reject a vegetable only on the basis of its color! Visual quality is as important as its flavor or nutritive value.

Pigments are compounds that give vegetables their color. Different pigments react in different ways to heat and to other elements that may be present during cooking.

WHITE VEGETABLES

White pigments are called ANTHOXANTHINS AND FLAVONOIDS, range from pale yellow to white, are the primary coloring compounds in potatoes, onions, cauliflower, turnips and white cabbage, and the white part of vegetables such as cucumber and eggplant (brinjal). White pigments are enhanced in acids and turn yellow in alkaline water. So add a drop or two of lemon juice while cooking cauliflower and cabbage to brighten the whiteness. Cooking for a short time in a steamer helps maintain color (and flavor and nutrients as well). Overcooking or holding for service for too long a time turns white vegetables dull yellow or grey.

RED VEGETABLES

Red pigments, called ANTHOCYANINS are found only in a few vegetables such as red cabbage, beetroot and the skin of eggplant. This pigment also colors blueberries. Red pigments react very strongly with acid and alkali mediums. Acid turns them brighter red and alkali turns then blue or blue-green (not a very appetizing color). Beetroot and red cabbage must therefore be cooked with a little vinegar to maintain the color. Red pigments dissolve easily in water. This means:

-          use short cooking times

-          Use only as much of water as is necessary

-          cook beetroots whole and unpeeled to protect the color

GREEN VEGETABLES

Green pigment called CHLOROPHYLL is present in all green plants. Green vegetables are very common in the kitchen, so it is important to understand the special handling required by this vegetable. Acids are enemies of green vegetables. Both acids and long cooking turn green vegetables into a drab olive green color. Protect the brightness of green vegetables by

-          Cooking uncovered to allow plant acid to escape.

-          Cooking for as short a time as possible.

-          Cooking in small batches

Do not use baking soda while cooking green vegetables. Soda may retain the color for a short time but will destroy the vitamins and makes the texture unpleasantly mushy. Use large amounts of water here as this helps to dissolve the plant acids, but may lead to loss of nutrients.

YELLOW & ORANGE VEGETABLES

Yellow and orange pigments are called CAROTENOIDS and are found in carrots, tomatoes and red peppers (capsicums). These pigments are very stable. They are little affected by acids, alkalis and overcooking. Short cooking will help prevent dulling of the color and will preserve nutrients and flavor.

VEGETABLE COLOUR	PIGMENT	SALT/ NEUTRAL	ACID	ALKALI	OVER COOKING
WHITE	FLAVONOIDS/ ANTHOXANTHINS	YELLOWISH	MORE WHITE	YELLOW	FADES
RED	ANTHOCYNINS	RED	RED	BLUE/ GRAYISH BLUE	FADED BLUE
GREEN	CHLOROPHYLL	BRIGHT	OLIVE GREEN	BRIGHT (MUSHY)	OLIVE GREEN
YELLOW/ ORANGE	CAROTENOIDS	FADES SLIGHTLY (NO CHANGE)	FADES	BRIGHT	FADES

CONTROLLING NUTRIENT LOSSES

Vegetables are an important part of our diets because they supply a wide variety of essential nutrients. They are our major sources of vitamins A & C and are rich in many other vitamins and minerals. Unfortunately, many of these nutrients are easily lost. The following factors are responsible for nutrient loss:

1.    High temperature.

2.    Long cooking.

3.    Leaching (dissolving out).

4.    Alkalis like baking soda and hard water.

5.    Plant enzymes (active at warm temperatures but destroyed by high heat).

6.    Oxygen.

Some nutrient loss is inevitable. It is impossible to avoid all the above conditions at the same time. Pressure-cooking shortens the cooking time but the high heat destroys the nutrients. Braising uses low heat, but the cooking time is slow. Cutting the vegetables into smaller pieces decreases cooking time but encourages leaching by creating more surface area exposed.

Tests have shown that no more nutrient loss occurs when cooking in a lot of water. The best cooking methods, nutritionally, are usually those that produce the most attractive, flavorful products. They are more likely to be eaten. Discarded vegetables benefit no one, no matter how nutritious they are. Factors that destroy nutrients are often those that destroy color, flavor and texture.

GOLDEN RULES/GENERAL RULES OF VEGETABLE COOKERY

1.    Do not overcook the vegetables.

2.    Cook as close to the service time as possible and in small quantities.

3.    Under-cook vegetables that need to be cooked ahead of time.

4.    Never use alkali (baking soda) with green vegetables.

5.    Cut vegetables evenly for uniform cooking.

6.    When boiling, start preferably with boiling salted water.

7.    Cook green and strong flavored vegetables uncovered.

8.    Do not cook different colored vegetables together.

9.    To preserve color, cook red and white vegetables in an acid medium. Cook green vegetables and carotenoids in a neutral medium.

10. Do not mix batches of cooked vegetables.

STORAGE OF VEGETABLES

Fresh Vegetables:

1.    Dry vegetables like potatoes and onions are stored at cool temperatures (50-65°F/ 10-18°C) in a dry dark place.

2.    Other vegetables must be refrigerated. To prevent drying, they should be covered or wrapped, or the humidity in the cooler should be high. Provide for some air circulation to prevent mold.

3.    Peeled and cut vegetables need special attention and protection from oxidation. Cover or wrap and use quickly to prevent spoilage. Potatoes and eggplant and other vegetables that brown easily should be treated with an acid or antioxidant. As an alternative, they may be blanched to destroy the enzymes that cause browning.

4.    Store all fresh vegetables for as short a time as possible. They lose quality rapidly. Peas and corn lose their sweetness and freshness even after just a few hours in storage.

Frozen Vegetables:

1.    Store at 0°F (-18°C) or colder

2.    Do not refreeze thawed vegetables. Quality will be greatly reduced.

PLEASE REFER TO YOUR ASSIGNMENT FOR BASIC CUTS OF VEGETABLES.

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REFERENCE BOOK: PROFESSIONAL COOKING—WAYNE GISSLEN

Stocks

STOCKS

                Stocks are the most basic preparation found in any professional kitchen. In French referred to as “Fond de Cuisine”-“Foundations of Cooking” In classical cuisine, the ability to prepare good stocks is the most basic of all skills, because so much of the work in the kitchen depends upon them. A good stock is the base for soups, sauces, gravies and stews. In the modern kitchen however, stock has lost some of its relevance and importance. Stock requires labor and moreover, the trend towards lean food without sauces means that today, stocks are not that necessary. Also the advent of the convenience stock cube, paste or powder has made the traditional stock making a bit obsolete. Nevertheless, the finest cuisine still depends on high quality stock. So stock making still remains an essential skill. Stocks are never served by themselves but are components of other dishes.

A stock maybe defined as a colorful, flavorful, nutritious liquid obtained by careful simmering of bones of meat, poultry, game, fish and their meats,vegetables,acids,seasonings and flavouring for a pre-determined period of time.

THE ELEMENTS OF A STOCK

WATER:                                             100%

BONES/MEAT (3:2):                          50%

MIREPOIX (2:1:1):                             10%

ACID:                                                                   5%

FLAVOURINGS/SEASONINGS:        1%

BONES:

Bones are the major ingredients in the making of stock. Most of the flavor and the body of stock are obtained from the bones of beef, veal, chicken and other poultry and fish. Occasionally, lamb, goat, pork and game bones are used for specific purposes. The kind of bones used would of course indicate the type of stock.
Chicken stock is made from chicken bones
Veal stock is made from veal bones
Fish Stock is made from fish bones and
Beef stock is made from beef bones

White stock is made from beef, veal, chicken etc.

Brown stock is made from beef or veal bones that have been browned in the oven.

Fish stock is made from fish bones and trimmings left over after filleting. Bones from lean white fish give the best stock.fat fish are not normally used. The term “FUMET” (ESSENCE) is used for a flavorful fish stock, especially one made with white wine.

There are two important factors to keep in mind here:

1. Meat and bones contain connective tissues called collagen. On heating, these break down and form gelatin and it is this gelatin that gives `body’ to the stock. Body is an important feature in stock making and is a quality indicator. A well made stock will thicken and even solidify when chilled.
2. Cartilage is the best source of gelatin in bones. Younger animals have more cartilage in their skeletons. As they get older, these harden into solid bone which is harder to dissolve into the stock. Knuckle bones, on the joints of major bones, have a lot of cartilage and are valued in stock making. Neck bones and shank bones are also used a great deal.
Large bones are cut into smaller pieces, about 3” long. This exposes more surface area and aids maximum extraction. These smaller pieces of bones are easier to handle and fit easily into the stockpot.

MEAT:
         Because of its cost, meat is rarely used nowadays in stock making. However, in the classical methods, large pieces of tougher cuts of meat were used to add flavor, taste, and nutritive value and to give body to the stock. Of course, suitable meats would be used. Beef for beef stock, chicken for chicken stock etc.

MIREPOIX:
         Aromatic vegetables are the second most important ingredients used to make stock. These add to the flavor and will include onion, carrot, and celery When these vegetables and roughly cut and mixed together, they are referred to as a Mirepoix. (Pronounced: Meer pwah). A Mirepoix is used in all areas of cooking as a flavoring and not just in stock making.

White Mirepoix is made without carrots, is used to keep the stock colourless as possible. Mushroom trimmings and leeks maybe added to the white Mirepoix.

               Size of the Mirepoix depends upon how long the Mirepoix will cook.eg: For a beef stock cut the vegetables into large pieces since it will be simmered for a long time as compared to Fish Stock.

MATIGNON: Also called as “EDIBLE MIREPOIX”, it typically consist of onions, carrots, celery and Ham/Bacon (Smoked products) mushrooms and assorted herbs and spices maybe added as desired. Used to garnish a dish as well as to flavour it(part of the dish ).

ACID:
   Acid products help to dissolve the connective tissue present in meat and bones. Help to extract flavour from the bones. Tomato products (paste and puree or juice) are used in brown stocks but would discolor white stock. Lemon juice or white vinegar is a commonly used acid product. Wine is occasionally used especially for fish stocks. However, its flavor contribution is more important than its acidity.

SCRAPS & LEFTOVERS:
These are constantly being added into the stockpot over a period of time. This may or may not be a good idea. Scraps and leftovers may be added if they are clean and appropriate to the stock being made. Remember that the stockpot is not a garbage disposal unit and the final product is only as good as the ingredients that are used.

SEASONING AND FLAVOURINGS:

Salt is usually not added when making stocks. Stocks are never used as it is , but reduced ,concentrated and combined with other ingredients. If salt were added it might become too concentrated.

Herbs and spices should be used only lightly, they should never dominate a stock or have a pronounced flavour.

1.     BOUQUET GARNI

2.    SACHET D’EPICES

3.    OIGNON BRULEE(BURNT ONION)

4.    OIGNON PIQUE (STUDDED ONION)

         These combinations of aromatic vegetables, herbs and spices are meant to enhance and support the flavours of the dish.

Bouquets and sachets are typically tied together for easy removal during cooking after the desired amount of flavour has been extracted, even before all of the ingredients in a dish are finished cooking.

BOUQUET GARNI is made up of fresh herbs and vegetables, tied to a bundle. If a leek is used to wrap the ingredients it must be washed thoroughly to get rid of the dirt.

A Standard Bouquet Garni includes:

1 sprig of thyme

3-4 parsley stems

1 bay leaf

2-3 leek leaves and /or 1 celery stalk cut crosswise in half.

SACHET D’EPICES (SA-SHAY DAY PEACE) is a sachet consisting of ingredients such as peppercorns, other spices and herbs. The seasonings are often tied up in a cheesecloth/muslin cloth.

A Standard Sachet d’epices includes

1 sprig of thyme or 1tsp dried thyme

3-4 parsley stems

1 bay leaf

1tsp cracked peppercorn

1 garlic clove (optional)

OIGNON BRULEE (BURNT ONION) is made by peeling or unpeeling and cutting an onion in half and charring the cut edges (it is used in some stocks and consommés) to give a golden brown colour and flavour.

OIGNON PIQUE (STUDDED ONION) is prepared by studding an onion with few whole cloves and a bayleaf; it is used to flavour Béchamel sauce and few other soups.

PROCEDURES:

Making stock may seem to be a simple procedure. However, there are many steps involved. You must understand not only what to do, but also why you are doing it.

Blanching of the Bones:
              Proteins coagulate when heated. Many proteins dissolve in cold water, but solidify into small particles or into froth and scum when heated. It is these particles that make a stock cloudy. Much of the technique of stock making involves avoiding cloudiness to produce a clear stock. The purpose of blanching the bones is to rid them of the impurities, which cause cloudiness. The bones of young animals are highest in blood and other impurities that cloud and discolor stocks. Chefs tend to disagree on the importance of blanching. Some feel that the process causes flavor loss. Others feel it is necessary to produce a clear stock. Fish bones are not blanched because of their short cooking time. Blanching involves the following steps:
1. Cut bones into small pieces and rinse in cold water. This washes off the blood and some of the other impurities. This step is especially important if the bones are not absolutely fresh.
2. Place the bones in a stockpot and cover with cold water. Remember, impurities dissolve easily in cold water.
3. Bring the water to a boil. As the water heats, impurities solidify (coagulate) and rise to the surface as scum.
4. Drain the bones and rinse them well. The bones are now ready for the stockpot.
5. To make brown stock, one more step is involved: Browning of the bones in the oven. This will impart the required color to the stock.

Procedure for preparing stock:

1. Add the blanched bones to cold water.
2. Bring the water to a boil, and then reduce to a simmer.
3. Skim the scum that rises to the surface, carefully.
4. Add the Mirepoix and the sachet. (Add tomato products if used)
5. Do not let the stock boil rapidly. Keep it at a low simmer. Boiling makes the stock cloudy.
6. Skim the surface as often as required.
7. Keep the water level above the bones. Cooking bones exposed to air will turn them dark and discolor the stock.
8. Simmer for the recommended time:
Beef stock: 8 to 10 hours
veal  stock: 6 to 8 hours

Poultry stock: 4 to 6 hours

Fish Stock: 30 mins to 1 hr
9 Skim the surface and strain the stock through a clean muslin/Tammy cloth.
10. Cool the stock as quickly as possible. Cooling the stock quickly and properly is important. Improperly cooled stock can spoil easily because it is a good breeding ground for bacteria. Do not refrigerate hot stock. It will damage the refrigerator and cause other foods to spoil as well.

Note: For Brown Stock, the Mirepoix may be browned with the bones.
When the bones are half browned, add the Mirepoix. However, some chefs prefer to add the Mirepoix directly to the stock.

FISH STOCK:
              Fish stock is prepared from fish bones obtained after cleaning, cutting, trimming and filleting fish. These are thoroughly washes and then allowed to sweat in a little oil or butter in a covered pan over medium heat. Water is then poured into the pan and brought to a boil. The scum formed is skimmed off regularly and the Mirepoix added before allowing the stock to simmer for 20 to 25 minutes. Because of the short cooking time involved, fish stock is often referred to as Court Bouillon (court meaning short in French).

REMOUILLAGE:

   Translated from the French as “REWETTING”, remouillage is made by reserving the simmering bones and Mirepoix from a stock and simmering them the second time. This secondary stock can be used as the liquid for the stocks, broths as a cooking medium or reduced to a glace.

REDUCTION & GLAZES
Stocks can be concentrated by boiling or simmering them to reduce them and evaporate part of the water. This is called reduction or reducing.
Glazes (Glace -glahss) in French
A  glaze is a stock that is reduced till it coats the back of a spoon. It is so concentrated that is solid and rubbery when refrigerated. Glazes are used as flavorings in sauce making and in some meat, fish, poultry and even vegetable preparations. Only small amounts are needed, as they are very concentrated. There are three types of glazes:

1. Meat glaze or glace de viande (glahss duh vee awnd) made from brown stock.
2. Chicken glaze or glace de volaille (glahss duh voh lye) made from chicken stock.
3. Fish glaze or glace de poisson (pwah sohn) made from fish stock (sometimes called Fumet).

COMMERCIAL BASES

The cost, both in terms of money, material and time of making stocks in the kitchen has lead to the widespread use of concentrated convenience products known as bases .These may be powders or pastes which are diluted with water to make a flavored liquid similar to stocks.

Bases vary greatly in quality. The best ones are composed mainly of meat extracts. These are perishable products and need to be refrigerated. However, a lot of bases are primarily salt (an expensive way of buying salt). Read the list of ingredients on the box or packet and avoid those, which list salt first!

USING BASES:
- Bases can be improved by simmering them with a little Mirepoix, meat trimmings and bones. This improves the taste and gives a `fresher’ and more natural flavor to the stock.
- Bases can be added to stocks to supplement their flavor and taste and reduce the cooking time.
- Bases are added to stocks to supplement them when only a little is on hand.

There is no substitute for a well-made stock. But it is also true that a good base may be better than a poorly made stock!!

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Please refer recipes for Stocks from your Food Production journal.

REFERENCE BOOKS: Professional Chef-(Culinary Institute of America)

                                   Professional cooking (Wayne Gisslen)